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Chapter 1 Past sounds（第1页）

Chapter1Pastsounds

Sound:13。7billio

Soundhasitsinfarbatime，notlohedisappointiBigBang。Infadwavesformedassoonastherewasamediumforthem，whichwas300，000yearsafterthebegihing，andthirteenbillioherewasaen。

Theprimordialsoundwasofaverylowfrequency，butporesent，anditformedwhentheplasmaofthenewbeditselfinpseudularpatternsthroughspace。Galaxieseventuallyformedinthedenserregions，ingtheprogenitoroftheworldweliveonandthesu。

MovingonafewbilliohefirstdaysofEarth（about4。6billio），thereweresouy，passingthroughthesolidplaanditssubsurfaceliquidareas，andboundbendingthroughitsatmosphere。Eventually，thehotlandcooled，rainsfell，andoed—osfullofsound。So，theeinwhichthefirstlivingthingsevolvedwasanacousticallyrie，whidlyaffectedtheforms，habits，aihosecreatures。

Hearing:500millio

Forus，thereisacleardistiweenheariit’saverydifferentmatterforuures:soundspassaseasilythroughtheirbodiesasvibratihours，and，infish，aredetectedbystructureseuromats，whicharedistributedovertheirbodysurface（fishhaveseveralstructurestoo）。

&shaircellssimilartothoseinourearsaheirowhinformationaboutthestrengthsaionsoflods。Theyevolvedperhaps500millio。Todeteesound，eardrumsandcochleaeareessential，andhenceevolvedonceamphibiaoizetheland，around400millio。unirobablythemainspurtotheevoluti，sindshaveadvantagesovervisualsignals:whiletheabilitytomakelightsandgecoloursexistsinsanisms，puttingonalightshowisfarmoregandnarrethanmakingnoise。Noisesaremadeeasily—aseasilyasbreathing。Inhumah-madesounds（pretrolledbyaveusthepowerofspeech。

Music:4o

Theappreusicisamysteriouspleasureandaoo:over4ohalsprobablyhadflutesaimeHomosapiensemerged，noointedcavedletewith。Itmaybethatthefirsthumanssang;perhapsevenbeforespeechevolved。Butwhy?Enjoyingmusioobviousevolutionaryadvantage。Darwinhimselfwasbaffled，butsuggestedthatatasteformusicmightarisethroughsouingrituals，ahisviewtoday。Others，however，preferthesuggestioionarypsychologistStevemusiauditoryequivalentofcheesecake，whijoyhatprefereedoura，butbeyofthesensationscheesecakeelicitsareofevolutiohemselves:thesweetnessoffruitasripenessandcreamyflavestenergy-richfats。Orperhapsmusidsus—thepresenceofwhidicatesthatorsarearound。

Harmony:2，5o

Today，soundplaysahugevarietyofrolesinourlives。Manyofouriiooitsissie，modifi，orreprodu。Butthequestofsoundisbynomeadevelopmehemostaefausistruments，andacoustieofthefirsts500bceorso，Pythagorasdiscoveredthatthesourummedstringmilywithohestrihishalved。The‘distawosoundsisanoctave，bydefinitionandbyuniversalagreemeharmoniousofallpairsofdifferentnotes。Soundsalmostasharmohestrihsbearothersimpleios:ifisone-and-a-halftimestheother，afifthisproduple。

Agtolegend，Pythagorasmadethisdiscoverywheunefulhammersfrewhereanumberofblacksmithshen（beingabuddi）heweighedthehammerstheywereusihatthosepairsleasantsouswhichweresimplemultiplesofeachother。Thefactthatthisstoryistoldtothisdayissurprisihefrequencyatwhichahammersoundsissweight。iquedhisiheihagorasusedtostudyharmonywasthemonochord—adevicewithasirihbesetbyame。

ToPythagoras，thefactthatthepleasantnessofsouhroughwhole-iossuggestedthathekeytotheuniverse。‘All’，soheissupposedtohavesaid，‘isoday’sstistswouldagree，and，initsimpastifiatics，musig，andacoustics，hisdisaybeobreakthroughsofall。

Althoughanyonelaysastrirumentknowsthattension，aswellasleheriherwisetururumentswouldn’twork），thiswasnotquahe16thturybyVinzoGalileo，fatherofthestist，whoshoitcreaseswiththesquarerootofthetension。thatitalsodepering’sthiddensity。

TheGreekswereihepracticalitiesofsound，thankstotheirkeeinmakingtheirvoicesheard:plays，oratioioes，songs，dprosabouheirgreatestacousticstructureisthetheatreofEpidaurus，builtiurybce。Thedistaagetretothebackrowisabout60metres，yetabeheardclearlyfromanyofthe1，400seats:fifty-fiverowsintotal。Itisithetheatre’sacousticsecretlies:thelimestoneofwhichtheyaremade，theircatedsurfadthespacesbetweenthemalltributetsub-500Hzfrequendrefleghigheroeningurandenhanaively。

ButtherearedisadvaoopenairspeeinEpidaurus。Withothesoubeveryloudindeed，whiotbutalsotendstorobthevoiceofitssubtlety。（Despitelegerary，theGreekslackedmegaphones，whiotihe1670s—simultaneouslybyAthanasiusKirGermanyandSamuelMorlandinEngland。）Baoisebeoreihoughiresperformancedayswouldhavebee，siyofthelocalpopulatioheatre。

Indoorpublicspacessolvedtheseproblemsbutintrodues:edreverberation。Foraobeamustbeheardmorethanabout120ofasedafterthesounditself。Ifheardbeforethat，theearrespondsasiftoasingle，louder，sound。Thus120sedistheauditoryequivalenttothe15ofasedthatoureyesoseeagthingastwes。（Hencameraframesmovefasterthaheillusionofflowihis‘persistenceofvision’iswhatmakesusseetherapidsequeillimagesthatmakeupaemafilmasasmoothlygimage。）

Sinesou10metresin120seslargerthanthis（inanydimension）areeberswaitingtohappen。Luckilyebereducedbyghardsurfaceswithsoft，fabric-coveredobjects，suchasaudiencemembers。

Thereisoforetosoundthaertai。Evenwordlesssouedwithmeaning，muchofwhichrehistorictimes。Thelonelyhowlofthewind，ashogscreamofpain，thejoyoussongsofbirds，thehappinesshter:intheseandmanyothercases，evolutiedunbreakableliweensouheseemotionalattatshavebeeedbyussiimes:warple，havelongbeeochillthebloodoftheeouniteaheceoftheattackers。

Themodernworld:acoustidmore

Followingtheworkofthealeresearthenatureofsoundwascarriedoutuhtury，wheHookeprovedbysimpledemonstrationsthatfrequendpitked。AlthoughIsaasuggestedaioyofsound，itwasi，andanaccurateversionwasonlyderivedbyPierreSimonLapla

1816。Laplaceshowedthat，toaapproximatioyofsounddependsoyayofthemediumthroughwhichitpasses（Box1）。

Box1

&ioelectroacousticdevithemid-19thturyledtorevolutionsiandirolofsound:themie，telephone，andloudspeakerappearedinquicksu，spurringrapiddevelopmentsinresearerdthearts。

&hdelegiher，withtheiiohefirstrectifier，usedinitiallyfordetegradiosignals）in1903ariode（thefirstamplifier）in1906。Thedevelopmeronicswasgreatlyacceleratedbythehichalsoledtothebirthofuicsresearchthroughiinsubmarinedete。

&heexistendswithfrequeoohightohearhadoallybeehe19thtury，theywereoedioftheupperfrequenanhearihoughsudsadeeasilybysparks，whistles，airjets，orpiezoelectriccrystals，theyremaileiilhenitwasrealizedthattheymightbepressedintoserviceaspartofarsystems。Soohewar，furtheriiosudshadarangeofuies，notallofwhichcouldbeexplaiheycouldkilllivingthings，causechemiges，gea，andmakewoodexplodeinshowersofsparks。Itmaybethattheyersoundsinpartbecauseepowers。AlthoughfarlessfamousthanX-raysandradiumemanations，supersoundssoongainedasimilarreputatioforceswrestedfromoolsofsce，butstillretainingaglamourofalmostsupernaturalmysteryandpower。

Itwasthemiddleofthe20thturybeforethepowerofultrasounderlyuoodaed。Bythen，theuseofamplifiableelectroacoustiologyhadtrulytraheworld。Publicspeakers，formerlylimitedtoaudiencesofacoupleofthousandattheverymostbythesoundsoftheirvoidthesizesoftheirvenues，oeopleintheirmillions，thousandsofmilesaway—eitherinstantaneouslyoradayoraturylater。Lifecouldbecaptured，redanalysedasneverbefore。

Therefieldstoo，ingsoundart;anill-defineddisewithimovemeo1930s，andiofeleusidgteology。LuigiRussolo’sGrauristico（1917）isanimportantearlyexample，aoneisLowlandsbySusanPhilipsz，asetofvariationsoplayedoveroher，whitheTurnerPrizein2010。Arelatedareaisambientmusicalledmuzakbyitsdetractors），whichisdesigoprovideanappropriatebadtopublicspaE1:MusicforAirports（1978）isagoodexample，andsaecarolsloopedendlesslyis（apaniedbygloomyemployeesforcedtodressaselves）isabadone。

&musiexampleofanartifidscape，aceptpopularizedbyMurraySchafer，whohelpedsetuptheWorldSouihelate1960s。TheprojeturionoftheWorldForumforAcousticE1993。Schaferhasbeenhighlyiial，inpartthroughhisgalvanizingclaimthataviroslyrevealthesoditionsofthosewhoievehowthatsocietywillevolve。

ApplyingSchafer’sapproaistandpolymathJacquesAttaliarguesthatmusitiurewidersoehavegonemuchfartherthanthis;historianAlainarguesthatvillagebellringingin18th-auryFrenchvillagesmouldedsodeisthere，andartistandwriterBrandohat‘myfeelingisthataoryandculturebefoundwithinasinglesound’。

Meheceptofthesoundscapehasepopularityinarangeofdises，thoughSchafer’sdefinitioermhasbeeakeatoftherelativeanddynamiatureofanaviroeologyhistoriahompsonpointsoutthatitis‘simultaneouslyaphysientandaergthate’。

Infilm，thestruofartifidscapesisachievedpartlythroughsouhesehavealsobeenamainstayofradiodramasisiionand，intheformofartifiderforexample，havebeeheatressiGreefilms，thecraftofdesigning，produdsyngsouheventsonsisknownasFoley。

Nolooodetedsoronvoidmeicaldeviakethem，westudyaoolowpitched，highpitched，orquiettohear，andweerateaicbeamswithenormouspore，leadingtoappliedie，defeng，andmanyotherfields。SinceWorldWarII，seriousattemptshavebeeodevelopsound-basedons，mainlybyproduddiregextremelyhigh-iybeams。Perhapsthebest-knoleiuseistheLeAcousticDevice（LRAD），whichprojectseitherandsorusounds。Ithasbeehumansandwildlifeiries。

Alohedeliberateandtrolleddevelopmentofsouionhasalsospreadthroughmuchoftheworld。Thehighlysensitiveheariservedouraorssowell，andstillallowourpleasureinmusidourfaspeeowtheduitsofaress，anddamage。

Sowhilewehavegaiheproduofsound，wearefarfrombeirolit。Iohaveanygso，weousnature。